preclinical medicine : the first 2 years of the usual curriculum
in a medical college
clinical medicine : the last 2 years of the usual curriculum in
a medical college.
Disciplinary action by a medical board was strongly associated with
prior unprofessional behavior in medical school (OR = 3.0; IC95
= 1.9 to 4.8), for a population attributable risk of disciplinary action
of 26%. The types of unprofessional behavior most strongly linked with
disciplinary action were severe irresponsibility (OR = 8.5; IC95
= 1.8-40.1) and severely diminished capacity for self-improvement (OR =
3.1; IC95 = 1.2 to 8.2). Disciplinary action by a medical board
was also associated with low scores on the Medical College Admission Test
and poor grades in the first 2 years of medical school (1% and 7% population
attributable risk, respectively), but the association with these variables
was less strong than that with unprofessional behaviorref
Doctoral degrees :
the Medicinæ Doctor or Doctor of Medicine (M.D. or D.M.) is
a an degree held by medical doctors. See Physician or Medicine for a fuller
discussion of the holders of this degree and their field of study. The
M.D. in Canada and the United States is a professional doctorate degree
much like the J.D. (juris doctor) and Pharm.D. is, as distinct from a research
doctorate (e.g., Ph.D.). All programs require a previous undergraduate
degree or some undergraduate coursework to be completed before acceptance
into a medical school. The M.D. typically is earned in 4 years.In the United
States most physicians have earned a M.D., although some may instead hold
a D.O.. See the Flexner Report. In the United Kingdom and in countries
that follow its tradition, medical doctors instead graduate as Bachelors
of Medicine and Surgery, usually abbreviated as 'MB BS', 'BM BCh' or '
MB ChB'. The Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery are higher degrees
reserved for those who have contributed significantly to the academic study
of medicine and surgery respectively. (It follows that the title of "Dr."
is technically honorary for the majority of practicing physicians in the
UK.). In Finland, physicians hold the degree of Licenciate in Medicine,
and as in the UK, the Doctor of Medicine (lääketieteen tohtori)
is a higher degree reserved for those who have held a doctoral dissertation.
=> pre-registration House Officer (PRHO) established by the General
Medical Council (Dr.; 1 year but as of Aug 2005 it will be 2 years and
called the foundation years; called internship in Europe,
while in the US it is called residency and it is of 2 years) =>
registration
to the General Medical Council (GMC)
=> general professional training / basic specialist training (senior
house officer (SHO); 2-3 years) => Member Royal College
higher specialist training (specialist registrar (SpR); 4-6
years, 1 year for GP registrar) => Certificate of Completion of Specialist
Training (CCST) released by the "Specialist Training Authority" of
the appropriate Royal College (Certificate of Prescribed Experience
released by the Joint Committee on Postgraduate Training for General
Practice (JCPTGP) for GP; they can eventually choose a job sharing
controlled by postgraduate deans)
Career grades :
staff grade (for SHO not pursuing as SpR) => Associate Specialists
Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D. (an abbreviation for the Latin "Philosophiæ
Doctor"; or alternatively Doctor philosophiæ, D.Phil.), was originally
a degree granted by a university to a learned individual who had achieved
the approval of his peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive
career in the field of philosophy. The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin:
teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age.
It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread
of knowledge. The degree was popularized in the 19th century at the Friedrich
Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had
undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. From here it
spread to the U.S., arriving at Yale University in 1861, and then to the
UK in 1921. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in
some Universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty
of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced
with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). However, some UK universities such
as Oxford and Sussex retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research
degrees. Some ability to carry out original research must be documented
by producing a dissertation or thesis of book length. The degree is often
a prerequisite for permanent employment as a university lecturer or as
a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis.
In others such as engineering or geology, a doctoral degree is considered
desirable but not essential for employment. The successful completion of
a doctoral program typically takes 3 to 7.5 years depending upon the specific
field of study, prior experience and/or training, and the progress made
by the doctoral candidate in his or her studies. In some fields such as
some specific branches of physics, a doctoral degree is practically essential
for employment. In some sciences, a newly-graduated doctoral student is
unlikely to find work as a tenure-track professor and must undertake one
or a series of postdoctorate positions. The predicted age of the student
upon graduation is also considered before admission to a Ph.D. program
in the U.S. in many universities in conjunction with the assumption of
the time needed to finish the Ph.D. It is rare for students to be admitted
to a Ph.D. program in engineering, mathematics, or in the sciences in the
U.S., if they will be 42 years of age or older upon graduation. The average
length of time needed by many engineering students is 6 to 7.5 years in
many U.S. colleges within major universities. The thought is that graduates
older than 42 years upon graduation will not produce the body of work over
their lifetime to be worth the time and effort within the university to
justify the student's admission to the Ph.D. program. The doctoral candidate's
progress is usually overseen by a thesis advisor, or supervisor, who chairs
a thesis committee that supervises the doctoral candidate. In the U.S.,
doctoral programs typically require a series of required and optional courses
at the beginning of the program, but education in the latter portion of
the program tends to consist of informal discussions with the thesis advisor
and individual research by the student. Many U.S. universities separate
the program into two portions (doctoral student and doctoral candidate)
with a required doctoral examination before allowing a student to be formally
admitted to a doctoral program. Alternatively, a student may be admitted
to the program, but is still required to complete a comprehensive examination
on his or her field before progressing to the dissertation state. The funding
of students varies from field to field, and many graduate students in the
sciences and engineering work as teaching assistants or research assistants
while they are doctoral students. In Australia, Ph.D. students are quite
often offered a scholarship to study their Ph.D. The most common of these
is the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) scholarship, which provides
a living stipend to students of approximately AUD$19,000 a year (tax free).
Most universities also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA
amount, but is funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening
of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly
harder to obtain. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships,
Australian students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. These
could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools,
research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount
is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite
often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AUD$10,000 more than the
usual APA rate. In some countries, a Ph.D. candidate is required to present
an oral defense of his thesis, known in the UK as a viva (short for viva
voce, Latin for "by live voice") before a committee. In France, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark and Finland, before a degree can be granted, the dissertation
has to be defended in what is, using a medieval term, called a disputation:
an expert in the field, often from another university, is appointed who
will present the dissertation, subject it to a critical examination and
discuss it with the author. In the context of the disputation, the critical
examiner is termed the opponent, and the author of the dissertation the
respondent. The dissertation has to be generally available in its final
or at least in a preliminary published form a few weeks before the disputation,
which is open to the public; after the opponent is finished, anyone present
is allowed to ask critical questions (anyone who does is called an "opponent
ex auditorio"—an opponent from the auditorium). The final grade is decided
after the disputation in a meeting between the opponent and a grading committee
of three or (sometimes) four people. In theory, also the points raised
by oppenenti ex auditorio affect the grade. It has happened, that such
opponent has caused the committee not to pass the respondent, although
this would be extremely extraordinary nowadays. In the United States a
final oral defense before one's dissertation committee is required although
it is rare that at this stage the thesis is not accepted. Nonetheless,
there are typically several candidates per decade in each college of each
major U.S. university who somehow do fail to defend successfully. Most
who fail do not complete the process at a subsequent defense. It is a largely
unwritten rule in the U.S. that unqualified candidates are eliminated during
the coursework or dissertation research phases, and are never permitted
to defend, hence the rarity of failing to pass the final defense in most
cases. Minor edits are often (most times) required during the defense by
committee members, and must be made prior to the final signing of the committee's
recommendation paperwork by all committee members. At the end of the defense,
the candidate is excused from the room, and the committee votes in secret
whether to grant the degree. Upon successfully voting in the affirmative
unanimously, the committee then calls the candidate back in to the room
by addressing him or her using the honorific Dr. (with their last name)
if successful, or Mr. or Ms. (with their last name) if unsuccessful. Technically,
the candidate becomes a Doctor of Philosophy at the instant that all committee
members vote in the affirmative. The rare case of not successfully defending
is also true in the Netherlands, where the oral defense ("promotie") typically
happens after the thesis has already been approved by examiners. The oral
defense is ended after a preset amount of time by the University-appointed
'pedel' or custos who is in charge of the protocol and will end the dissertation
with the words "Hora est!" (latin for it is time or the hour has come).
In contrast, viva voces in British universities are by no means a rubber
stamp. Whilst many (perhaps most) theses are passed with some minor corrections
or revisions required by the examiners, very few are passed with no corrections
whatsoever, and indeed a pass-without-correction is considered a particular
honour. Moreover, it is not uncommon for British theses to be failed, as
well — in which case, either major re-writes are required, followed by
a new viva, or else the thesis may be awarded the lesser degree of M.Phil
(Master of Philosophy) instead. A Ph.D. does not confer commensurate advantage
in every sphere. For example, many commercial organizations regard a professional
Master's degree, such as an MBA, or professional designation, such as CPA,
as the highest level of education that is desirable. It is not uncommon
in engineering fields in the U.S. for individuals to omit any mention of
an earned Ph.D. in their resume when job hunting, to avoid the stigma of
being considered all book learning bound, and unable to accomplish practical
engineering tasks successfully. Traditional views of the value of academic
study in commerce are changing but scepticism about the commercial value
of a Ph.D. prevails. Medical schools may offer research Ph.D. degrees as
part of their M.D. programs, although an M.D. by itself is frequently enough
to teach medicine. The Ph.D. is often the topic of scholarly debate and
criticism, given its almost exclusive concern with research and publication
to the alleged neglect of numerous other faculty responsibilities that
include teaching, collegial evaluation, collective and individual curricular
planning, etc. Solutions have met with varying degrees of success. In the
1960s, the prestigious Carnegie Foundation helped promote and establish
the Doctor of Arts degree as an alternative to the Ph.D. The D.A. degree,
with its focus on content specialty, curriculum design, and pedagogy, was
designed to help prepare expert teachers in various fields. Its well-defined
disciplinary focus makes it different from the Ed.D. (Doctor of Education)
while still embracing the Ed.D.'s concern for issues in education. The
D.A. continues to be offered in many universities across the United States
and in other countries, though a few D.A. programs have since been converted
to the Ph.D. model. Still, the D.A. has many steadfast supporters. Other
solutions include a re-thinking of the Ph.D. in order to address its perceived
shortcomings. There are many other doctoral degrees with different designations,
e.g. D.A. (Doctor of Arts), D.M.A. (Doctor of Musical Arts), Ed.D. (Doctor
of Education), Th.D. (Doctor of Theology), etc. Johns Hopkins University
was the first university in the United States to confer doctoral degrees.
First Ph.D. in Business was granted by the University of Chicago in 1920s.
In the United Kingdom, Ph.D.s are distinguishable from higher doctorates
(such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which
are issued by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and
publication). In German speaking countries and most eastern European countries,
the corresponding degree is simply called "Doctor" and is further distinguished
by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." - doctor medicinæ
- which is not equal to a Ph.D., "Dr.rer.nat - doctor rerum naturalium
(Doctor of Science), "Dr.phil." - doctor philosophiæ. For a full
list of these titles, see the German entry for Doktor). While the Ph.D.
is the most common doctoral degree, and even often (mis)understood to be
synonymous with the term “doctorate,” the U.S. Department of Education
and the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) recognize numerous doctoral
degrees as equivalent, and do not discriminate between them. Sometimes
a university grants an honorary Ph.D. or D.A., or other doctoral degree,
with the added designation of honoris causa (Latin for for the sake of
honor), or Dr.h.c.. In recent years, the term Ph.D. (ABD), an abbreviation
for "All But Dissertation", has also come into usage. Seen primarily in
the U.S. where significant prerequisite coursework is often a part of the
doctoral program, the Ph.D. (ABD) is not an official degree. As an unofficial
designation, however, it serves to note when a Ph.D. student has completed
all graduate coursework for the doctorate, has passed the cumulative and/or
qualifying examinations, has been formally advanced to final candidacy
and may have conducted original research, but has not submitted a dissertation
to satisfy the final requirement for formal conferral of the Ph.D. degree.
In some schools a student can write an additional thesis at this point
and receive a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) degree; in others, the MPhil
(sometimes Candidate in Philosophy, CPhil) is conferred on an ABD student
who has been advanced to candidacy for the Ph.D., having completed all
requirements except the doctoral thesis or dissertation.
D.Sc, Sc.D., ScD, or S.D. is the abbreviation of the Latin Scientiae
Doctor, which means "'Doctor of Science". It is a doctoral degree above
par with the Ph.D and is referred to as a higher doctorate in Europe. In
the United States of America, the Sc.D. is considered a first professional
degree in some areas such as Audiology. The Doctor of Science degree is
earned with the approval of a committee on the basis of a research, publication
record, and extensive applied professional contributions. The Sc.D. is
awarded predominantly in doctoral level science programs such as engineering,
information systems, and public health sciences. The Sc.D. is also the
predecessor of the Au.D., Doctor of Audiology. Several Universities still
offer the Sc.D. as a professional doctorate in Audiology. Notably, the
Doctor of Science (Sc.D.) degree has long been awarded by Harvard University,
Johns Hopkins University's schools of public health, and Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, often as an alternative to the Ph.D. for outstanding
research. The Doctor of Science degree is also historically older than
the Ph.D. In Europe, the Doctor of Science degree is often regarded as
the highest doctoral degree and highest honor and recognition any researcher
can attain.
M.Sc.
In Italy, the dottorato di ricerca (doctorate of research) is the highest
academic degree, unofficially considered the equivalent of a Ph.D.. The
dottorato is a relatively recent addition to the Italian academic landscape,
having been instituted in 1980. Students are admitted to the doctoral program
via competitions offered by individual universities, which set their own
standards for admission. The program is from three to five years in length.
Holders of the laurea (a lower degree, similar to bachelor's degree) are
granted the title "Doctor" (dottore; women are commonly named dottoressa);
holders of the laurea specialistica (now renamed laurea magistrale, similar
to master's degree) are granted the title "Doctor magistralis" (dottore
magistrale); holders of the dottorato acquire the title of dottore di ricerca
("doctor of research").
MD/PhD program "Molecular
Medicine" at Hannover Medical School, Germany
Continuing Medical
Education (CME) :
Web resources : EuroTransMed
: a European organisation that provides continuing medical education by
satellite television.
value the person and his or her goals. "Human resources are much more important
than money and technology"
spend the time and energy. "To keep my students on the straight and narrow,
have them feel enthusiastic, and develop their self-confidence requires
an enormous amount of effort on my part"
realize it's your job. "You have a responsibility to pass science on"
It's easy to be a good mentor when you have motivated students, but if
someone does not measure up, that can cause trouble. In such cases, ask
him where he wants to be in 5 years. By focusing on the goal, rather than
any personal flaws, you help the trainee take some responsibility in the
training. I don't think you should tell the person they're not measuring
up, and you're going to fire them. If it's not working for that individual,
then they've got to move somewhere to get their career going. When faced
with a difficult student, Janovy asks himself whether that person has a
strong reason for being in training and could contribute to society in
a science career. If you see real value in that individual, you're going
to find a way to deal with very strong personality issues. Scientists now
have to be versed in compliance and regulatory issues, interact with industry,
understand the legalese of patents and material transfer, and use technologies
that get you more data than you can analyze. In addition to science, an
ideal mentor should teach students how to deal with the entire system that
science is now buried in. Moreover, exposure to departmental politics and
study-section diplomacy is a part of training. There's a general rule that
anything can be said within the graduate students' room, but it doesn't
get out the door : a lot of that is gossip, but on the other hand, it's
pretty informative gossip.
Keeping postdocs happy : top 10 ways according to The Scientist
:
2003 survey :
1. Comprehensive collections of journals and books
2. Scientific career preparation
3. High quality research tools
4. Smooth communication in the lab
5. Quality research
6. Supportive colleagues
7. Well-maintained buildings
8. Scientific mentoring from PIs
9. Lab technical support
10. University services
2005 survey :
1. Training and experience for future career
2. Access to books and journals
3. Access to equipment and supplies
4. principal investigator (PI) discusses science behind experiments
5. PI discusses issues that arise in research
6. PI demonstrates how to succeed as a scientist
7. PI encourages conference attendance, helps defray cost
8. PI clearly communciates expectations, feedback
9. Research work gives me a sense of pride
10. PI understands family, personal obligations
The 2004 NSB report,
along with NSF's biennial Science
and Engineering (S&E) Indicators 2004, found that the number of
US jobs requiring S&E skills is growing at nearly 5% annually, compared
with a 1% growth rate for the rest of the US labor market. Many of those
currently working in S&E will retire in the next 20 years, while a
smaller number of students are choosing S&E careers to take their place.
The United States has fallen from third place in 1975 to 17th place compared
to other countries in the proportion of 18 to 24 year-olds earning S&E
degrees. Over the past several decades, record numbers of foreign-born
S&E professionals have filled this gap. Between 1990 and 2000,
the proportion of foreign-born people with doctorates employed in US S&E
occupations rose from 24 to 28%. And in 2001, more than 50% of the US engineering
and computer science graduates were foreign-born students. But restrictions
on visas issued to students, exchange visitors, and scientists following
the September 11 terror attacks have sharply curtailed this inflow.
Increasing opportunities for science jobs in other countries are luring
qualified scientists away from the United States. Between 1993 and 1997,
developed countries other than the United States increased their number
of S&E research jobs by 23%, compared with an 11% increase in the United
States. US-based authors continue to produce the largest share of scientific
journal articles, S&E Indicators 2004 data show. But the number has
been flat since 1992, while output from Western Europe and several Asian
countries has increased. Even if action is taken today to change these
trends, the reversal is 10 to 20 years away because middle-school students
who are deciding now to pursue careers in science won't complete advanced
training until 2018 or 2020. Despite a peak in overall graduate student
enrollment in science and engineering in the USA in the fall of 2002, the
number of new foreign graduate students in those fields has declined. The
National
Science Foundation (NSF) report found a 5% boost in US citizens and
permanent residents in 2002 over 2001. The number of graduate students,
455,400, was a 6% jump over 1993, the previous peak year. There was an
8% overall boost in foreign students who were temporary visa holders. But
there was a drop in full-time, first-time enrollment of foreign graduate
students in all major fields except the biological and social sciences.
Hardest hit by the decline in foreign students was computer science, which
recorded a 15% drop in 2002. That compared with a 7% gain the previous
year. The report also notes an 8% decrease in earth, atmospheric, and ocean
sciences. And while the biological sciences did post an increase in foreign
enrollment, it was < 1%, compared with a 10% increase the year before
over 2000. In 2001, there were just under 400,000 student visa applications,
27% of which were rejected, according the NSF's Science and Engineering
Indicators 2004. By 2003, the number of applications had declined to slightly
under 326,000, and the rejection rate was 35%. In all likelihood, we will
see even greater declines, as USA has more and more issues with regard
to students being able to get temporary visas to come into the country
and study. Such declines may well pose questions in the long term : the
US competes globally for top-quality students and that other countries—the
UK,
Germany,
and
Australia,
for example—may offer very attractive options. The overall boost in science
and engineering enrollment was seen as a positive sign by some observers
: this is following what had been a decline in the late 90s. For 32 years
in a row the enrollment of foreign students in US universities increased,
but the trend reversed in 2004, when there was 19% decrease in life sciences.
1,000 researchers had visa applications flagged for review in 2000 vs.
14,000 in 2002.
Copyright © 2001-2005 Daniele Focosi.
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